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The UK’s exit from the European Union triggered significant changes to the immigration system. As part of these reforms, the government introduced unique, temporary visa schemes for work in the agricultural and care sectors. In agriculture, the government introduced the Seasonal Worker visa (SWV) to allow workers from overseas to come to the UK to work for periods of less than six months initially as a ‘pilot’ in 2019...

On 1 January 2021, the government introduced a Skilled Health & Care Worker visa (H&CWV), which is a subtype of the Skilled Worker visa, with key differences being that applicants pay lower visa application fees and do not have to pay the Immigration Health Surcharge... In contrast to the SWV, the H&CWV permits workers to renew their visas and provides a route to settlement...

Nonetheless, the H&CWV limits labour mobility as it requires employer sponsorship; when moving to a new role, a worker must find another licensed sponsoring employer and update their visa within 60 days, making a new application that includes the payment of a further fee...

Our report’s key aim is to analyse the effects of these migration schemes on workers’ vulnerability to exploitation and modern slavery. Distinctively, the report also examines workers’ access to protective labour market structures, such as union membership and mechanisms of statutory enforcement and redress. Finally, we assess whether the current enforcement mechanisms contribute to workers’ vulnerability to exploitation and modern slavery. This comparative study allows us to identify cross-sectoral effects and instances of best-practice that shape our recommendations for reform.