Climate change represents an existential threat to human rights, and responding to it urgently means a rapid adoption of renewable energy. But as the demand for minerals necessary for the energy transition increases exponentially, so do the human rights and environmental abuses associated with its mining – raising concerns about the world’s most vulnerable populations who face the greatest risk from both climate change, as well as the extraction of transition minerals. For the energy transition to be considered truly just, it must be centered on the rights and participation of Indigenous Peoples, frontline communities and workers affected by transition minerals mining and renewable energy projects.

Although Africa is among countries who have contributed the least to greenhouse gases, it has borne some of the greatest consequences, as exemplified by rising cases of flooding and draught. However, the transition from fossil fuels to clean energy, imperative in halting climate change, has provided an opportunity for African countries in two respects. First, countries such as South Africa, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Zambia and Zimbabwe are endowed with minerals critical to the energy transition, such as manganese, zinc, copper, lithium and cobalt. Secondly, according to the International Energy Agency, Africa is home to close to one-fifth of the global population – but accounts for just 6 per cent of the global energy use. This access gap, coupled with the abundance of wind, geothermal and solar energy resources, makes renewable energy a major option for plugging this deficit. Kenya is already setting the pace, with more than 70 per cent of its energy coming from renewable sources.

Unfortunately, as elsewhere in the world, these opportunities have come with significant human rights risks to local communities, workers, and frontline defenders where extraction of transition minerals is ongoing, as well as in countries where deployment of renewable energy installations is taking place.

The Business & Human Rights Resource Centre (Resource Centre) has been monitoring human rights risks linked to the mining of minerals essential for powering the global energy transition. Between 2010 and 2024, the Transition Minerals Tracker (TMT) recorded 835 allegations of human rights and environmental abuse linked to the extraction of these key minerals. Updated annually, this year’s analysis spotlights the human rights implications of mining eight transition minerals: bauxite, cobalt, copper, iron ore, lithium, manganese, nickel and zinc.

While all minerals covered by the TMT can be found in Africa, the continent is particularly rich in cobalt, copper, lithium and manganese. The DRC accounts for the more than 70 per cent of the global cobalt supply, while Zambia has is ranked seventh globally in copper production (used across a wide range of technologies and in power grids for electrification) and second only to DRC in Africa. Zimbabwe is the top producer of lithium in Africa and among the top five globally.  South Africa is the world’s largest producer of manganese.

The DRC and Zambia’s important role in the global energy transition is underscored by the construction of the Lobito Corridor, a huge infrastructural development connecting mineral-rich parts of DRC, Zambia and Angola for onwards shipment out of Africa. This is supported by the European Union, the US, the Africa Development Bank, Angola, Zambia and the Africa Finance Corporation. Whereas it is meant to connect other sectors of the economy as well, it is noteworthy that transition minerals will form a significant part of its targeted resource.

The 2025 TMT analysis reveals that those most impacted by extraction of transitional minerals are workers, Indigenous Peoples, local communities and human rights defenders (HRDs). In Africa, workers and local communities are bearing the brunt of human rights abuses related to the extraction of transition minerals. Communities where mining takes place are still steeped in poverty – despite the mining companies reaping high profits from exploiting their land. The TMT also recorded instances of lack of meaningful engagement and violation of workers’ rights. Meanwhile, a violent conflict in the DRC – attributed to the control of minerals, including transition minerals – has exacerbated the plight of workers and local communities.

Key 2025 findings from Africa

However, workers and communities are starting to fight back. The Resource Centre’s just transition litigation tracking tool points to a rising trend of lawsuits against transition mineral mining firms and renewable energy companies for systemic human rights abuses. Since 2009, 95 legal cases launched around the world by Indigenous Peoples, other frontline communities and workers directly impacted by human rights harms associated with the growth of the renewable energy value chain. In Africa, there have been five recorded lawsuits related to mining activities in DRC and three related to working conditions. Two cases were recorded in Zambia.

Country spotlights

Most of the companies against whom allegations of abuse have been raised are headquartered in South Africa, with others based in Canada and the United Kingdom.

Like other business sectors, there have been allegations of companies mining transition minerals using Strategic Lawsuits Against Public Participation (SLAPPs) against community advocates. For instance, First Quantum Minerals against Edward Lange, who is affiliated to Southern Africa Resource Watch, against a regional NGO.  The company denied the allegation of SLAPP.

Given the allegations of human and environmental rights abuses linked to mining of transitional minerals, banks financing their extraction should use their leverage to ensure such mining respects internationally recognised standards. The Resource Centre reached out to 15 banks linked to mining of transition minerals in South Africa. The outreach revealed that banks are failing to take measures to avoid contributing to abuses in this risky sector.

This puts into question the pact between Rwanda and the European Union (EU) in the context of the EU Critical Raw Materials Act.

Despite a challenging operating environment, there has been some progress. First, there are increasing reports of the use of the national legal system by workers and communities to hold cobalt mining companies legally accountable. Workers at the forefront of the energy transition have filed at least five lawsuits against mining companies challenging working conditions. Secondly, there have been regulatory advancements that aim to securing benefits for the local population. For instance, in 2024, the DRC updated its Traceability Procedures Manual for Tradable Mining Products (2024) to promote transparency and prevent trade in conflict minerals.

Zimbabwe has the largest lithium reserve in Africa and accounts for about 10 per cent of the allegations (18 out of 178) of abuse recorded in Africa – more than half of which are associated with Bikita Minerals. Most of the allegations of abuse relate to workers’ rights (safety issues) and community rights. The Resource Centre has been reaching out to Bikita Minerals to respond to the allegations of abuse associated with their operations. The company has responded to 86% of the instances of outreach, mostly denying the allegations. Most of the parent companies of those linked to abuses are headquartered in China, while the rest are headquartered in Zimbabwe. Our analysis found human rights abuse allegations against 24 Chinese companies linked to transition mineral mining in Africa, seven of which were based in Zimbabwe. The country’s permissive approach to licensing of mines and the lack of strong regulation has likely contributed to the high allegations of abuse. Though non-binding, it is hoped the ongoing conversation around the proposed National Action Plan on Business and Human Rights will spur discussion on how to center human rights in the mining of critical minerals.

Recommendations

For companies

• Meaningfully engage and compensate all affected community members with land conflicts with mining companies and minimise pollution from activities.
• Meaningfully engage workers, their unions, and local communities into upstream project conception and design to support models of shared prosperity through decent work, and living wages.
• Commit to implementing gender-sensitive human rights and environmental due diligence, based on the UN Guiding Principles on Business & Human Rights (UNGPs), ensuring executive oversight and board-level responsibility. Adopt zero-tolerance policies for abuse of communities, workers, HRDs and Indigenous defenders, with effective grievance mechanisms built on safe and inclusive worker and community engagement in place. 

For investors

• Undertake rights-respecting investment consistent with the UNGPs, assessing impacts on people and planet – not just financial materiality.
• Leverage financial power to engage with companies to pressure mines, mineral processors, and/or suppliers to change practices that cause environmental or human rights harm, developing high expectations for responsible business conduct.
• Support emerging legislation on mandatory human rights and environmental due diligence, while backing stronger human rights protections in trade agreements.

For governments

• Ensure that mining, and all related activities do not lead to serious or preventable environmental damage and other human rights abuses of affected communities.
• Implement and enforce legislation mandating human rights and environmental due diligence holding accountable, including through criminal prosecutions and civil penalties, company representatives that violate individual and community rights.
• EU to ensure Critical Raw Materials Act’s related memoranda of understanding with African states mandate human rights and environmental due diligence, including meaningful engagement with workers and mining-impacted communities.