Since 2010, the Business & Human Rights Resource Centre (BHRRC) has been monitoring human rights risks linked to the mining of minerals essential for powering the global energy transition. Between 2010 and 2024, the Transition Minerals Tracker (TMT) recorded 835 allegations of human rights and environmental abuse linked to the extraction of these key minerals. Updated annually, this year’s analysis spotlights the human rights implications of mining eight transition minerals: bauxite, cobalt, copper, iron ore, lithium, manganese, nickel and zinc.

In the Asia-Pacific region, notable cases of abuse have arisen over the last 14 years. As the world races to meet ambitious climate goals, they are looking to mineral-rich countries in Asia-Pacific to provide the elements needed to power a “fast” transition to renewable energy.

The global data reveals that those most impacted by this new rush to extract are workers, Indigenous Peoples, local communities, and human rights defenders (HRDs). In the Asia-Pacific region, these four categories also bear the brunt of rights abuses. Evidence suggests lack of respect for their land rights, disregard for public participation rights, and the right of Indigenous Peoples to give or withhold their free, prior and informed consent (FPIC), leading to increasing and often drawn-out conflicts. Furthermore, there is little evidence that locally affected communities will reap any benefits of the current boom to mining for transition minerals, while the extraction occurs from their lands.

Critical to the context in Asia-Pacific is China’s undisputed role in the region. As the world’s leading manufacturer of green technologies, including wind turbines, solar panels and EV batteries, Chinese companies’ supply chains continue to rely on, and operate heavily in, countries across the region, especially in mineral-laden Southeast Asia. In July 2023, BHRRC analysed the human rights and environmental impacts of Chinese overseas investment in transition minerals across the globe. Asia-Pacific had the highest number of allegations, with 43 out of the 102 allegations of abuse recorded between January 2021 and December 2022.

Other notable surges in the region compared to last year were seen in Papua New Guinea, India, Myanmar and Mongolia. The number of allegations is particularly concerning as the country positions itself as a key global supplier of minerals such as nickel, and is set to dominate nickel production, holding a 62% share of the global nickel supply by 2030. This is becoming increasingly vital to international markets in the energy transition, and specifically, to the EV trade. As mining for transition minerals in Indonesia booms, the industry is simultaneously leaving behind a trail of destruction. Alarmingly, Indonesia accounted for the highest number of mining-related allegations of abuse from 2021 to 2022. Between 2023 and 2025, 20 more allegations of human rights and environmental harms were recorded in Indonesia. Our 2023 and 2024 research found salient human rights risks in Indonesia’s nickel supply chains, including high numbers of worker injuries and deaths.

In spite of the reported allegations of abuse, early this year, Indonesia’s parliament amended the 2009 Mining Law extending mining rights from state-owned enterprises to private entities such as religious groups and small and medium-sized enterprises. Groups fear these changes may lead to increased deforestation, pollution and social impacts. Other policies, such as the 2020 Omnibus Law, have faced legal challenges this year, with separate lawsuits filed with the Constitutional Court. The law has been criticised for weakening environmental protections and undermining human rights and labour laws.

The Philippines ranks second in Southeast Asia in terms of allegations of abuse linked to transition mineral mining, with nine allegations tracked on our database. Mining in the Philippines comes with human and environmental costs. It is the most dangerous sector for environmental and human rights defenders (EHRDs) according to BHRRC’s global data of HRDs allegations (6,400 attacks). The Philippines recorded the highest number of EHRDs attacks (411) in Asia. EHRDs, especially Indigenous Peoples, challenging corporate harm in mining-related projects in the country have suffered in different forms of the attacks ranging from judicial harassment and physical assault to disappearances and killings. Global Witness reported, for example, that at least 17 land and environmental defenders were either “killed” or “forcibly disappeared” in the Philippines in 2023 – the highest number in Asia. Meanwhile, mining activities have also caused environmental damage to the ecosystem, such as the loss of biodiversity, soil and water pollution, and deforestation.

In Myanmar, the ongoing conflict has increased concerns for local communities bearing the brunt of transition mineral extraction, particularly rare earth mining, mainly associated with Chinese companies and armed groups.  While the internal conflicts in natural resource-rich state of Kachin between Kachin fighters and the junta remain active along the border with China, mining activities continue to pose serious environmental harms and threats to communities surrounding the areas. With high demands of rare earth used mainly for magnets, electronic devices and EVs, unregulated mining operations, particularly in Shan and Kachin states in Myanmar, have not only caused detrimental impacts on the environment and the ecosystem in the country but also cross-border pollution into northern areas of Thailand. Communities in both countries have endured health problems and the loss of livelihoods caused by air, soil and water pollution and toxic substances due to mining.

Case studies from Asia-Pacific

EV supply chains in Indonesia and the Philippines

Human rights abuses in nickel supply chains are prevalent on the small islands in Indonesia and the Philippines – and have been linked to some of the world’s largest EV manufacturing companies.

Similarly, on Kabaena island, 25 nickel mining concessions are alleged to have caused reckless forest clearing and marine pollution, with many of these permits allegedly being issued after 2014, when mining in small islands was prohibited by law.

As Bajau Indigenous People, known as the last sea nomads, are populous in nickel-rich island of Kabaena, their traditional Bajau way of life and the delicate marine ecosystems they depend on are impacted by nickel mining.what was paid for lost earnings and land.

Meanwhile, nickel mining operations in the Philippines carried out by Rio Tuba Nickel Mining Corporation are alleged to have caused direct adverse effects on health and welfare of affected communities on the island of Palawan. Water contamination from mining activities, lack of FPIC of Indigenous Peoples, loss of food security and the destruction of surrounding rainforests are among the impacts identified. Purchasing companies allegedly linked to Rio Tuba include Panasonic, Tesla, and Toyota. When asked about the allegations, only Panasonic sent a response to the Resource Centre.

Labour rights in Papua New Guinea and Myanmar

Chinese migrant workers at Ramu Nickel cobalt project in Papua New Guinea have complained about infringement of their labour rights, including intense working hours including restriction of movement, lack of adequate or proper healthcare, limited space for free speech and witnessing corruption by management teams. Two companies were approached for a response to the allegations; however, while one company could not be reached, the other did not respond. Similarly, in Myanmar’s Norinco’s Monywa copper mine, operated by Chinese-owned Wanbao Mining, the company is allegedly using state armed forces to intimidate communities, set homes on fire and kill civilians who pose a threat to the continuity of the mine’s operations. While Wanbao Mining was reportedly unreachable, the Resource Centre wrote to its parent company – Norinco – to seek a response to the allegations but it did not submit a response. 

Mine workers’ health in India

Mine workers are reported to have been exposed to risks of long-term health harms at the Bailadila iron ore mines in Chhattisgarh due to exposure to air pollutants causing urinary health problems. A study published in Science Direct looked at the seasonal impact of matter exposure on iron ore mine workers, in which workers’ urine samples were analysed. The findings revealed direct and significant health impacts of occupational exposure to pollutants found only at mining sites. The key findings included: all workers showing signs of urinary tract inflammation; kidney stress or damage, especially for those in the rushing or loading departments; liver dysfunction, likely from workplace toxins; and other issues such as dehydration and heavy metals detection. The consistent evidence of health impacts linked to exposure in the workplace environment reinforces the urgent need for better and safer working conditions, routine health monitoring prioritisation from top-down, and regulatory oversight. The company did not respond to the allegations as requested by the Resource Centre.

Litigation in Australia

Since 2009, the Resource Centre’s Just Transition Litigation Tracking Tool has documented 95 legal cases launched around the world by those directly impacted by human rights harms associated with the growth of the renewable energy value chain. Eight of these cases were documented in Asia and three cases were documented in Australia and Oceania. One of these cases involved the Aboriginal Areas Protection Authority, which alleged before a local court that operations at the McArthur River zinc mine, owned by Glencore, were carried out at a sacred site without adequate authorisation. In another case, residents living near the Boddington bauxite mine lodged complaints against mine expansion plans of which they had no prior knowledge.

These issues should raise serious concerns for companies and investors in the mining and renewable energy industries operating in Asia-Pacific. This is not only important for their human rights implications, but in terms of mitigating legal and financial risks as communities and workers increasingly take to the courts to hold companies responsible for abuse. Failure to engage meaningfully with rightsholders, lack of adequate environmental standards and disregard for human rights can lead to social unrest and conflicts around mining sites and, in turn, to increased risk of litigation.

Rights-respecting business operations supporting a just transition to clean energy must centre on three core principles:

• Shared prosperity: effective business models driving fast transitions that build worker and community rights in companies’ operations and supply chains;
• Human rights and social protection: the duty of care of governments and companies to shield workers and communities from harm; to demonstrate due diligence to minimise human rights and environmental risks; and to ensure social protection, retraining and creating new decent work; and
• Fair negotiations: guarantees for communities and workers that negotiations will be fair throughout operational life cycles and when accessing remediation for harm, including inclusive community consultation and robust implementation of the principles of free, prior and informed consent (FPIC) for Indigenous Peoples.

Recommendations

For companies

• Respect Indigenous Peoples’ land rights, the right to FPIC, while safeguarding the local environment sustaining communities. Where consent is granted, fully and fairly compensate all affected community members with land conflicts with mining companies and minimize pollution from activities.
• Commit to proper human rights due diligence, based on the UN Guiding Principles on Business & Human Rights (UNGPs), ensuring executive oversight and board-level responsibility. Adopt zero-tolerance policies for abuse of communities, workers, HRDs, and Indigenous defenders, with effective grievance mechanisms built on safe and inclusive worker and community engagement in place.

For investors

• Undertake rights-respecting investment consistent with the UNGPs, assessing impacts on people and planet—not just financial materiality.
• Leverage financial power to engage with companies to pressure mines, mineral processors, and/or suppliers to change practices that cause environmental or human rights harm, developing high expectations for responsible business conduct.
• Support emerging legislation on mandatory human rights and environmental due diligence, while backing stronger human rights protections in trade agreements.

For governments

• Ensure that mining, and all related activities do not lead to serious or preventable environmental damage and other human rights abuses of affected communities.
• Ratify ILO Convention 169, the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, and enact the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Bill in order to simplify the process of recognition of Indigenous Peoples and their customary lands.
• Implement and enforce legislating mandating human rights and environmental due diligence holding accountable, including through criminal prosecutions and civil penalties, company representatives that violate individual and community rights.